Urology Cancers: All about bladder, kidney, prostate, and Cancer

The normal PSA levels for men, who do not have prostate cancer or any other prostate-related conditions, vary with age — generally, the older the age, the higher the normal range of PSA. This normal PSA range is not a single value but rather spans from a lower to an upper limit. Additionally, these ranges are not specific to an individual age but are grouped by decade. For example, the normal PSA range for men aged 40-49 years is 0 to 2.5 ng/mL, for those 50-59 years old it is 0 to 3.5 ng/mL, for 60-69 years old the range is 0 to 4.5 ng/mL, and for men aged 70-79 years, it's 0 to 6.5 ng/mL. The term 'ng/mL' in the context of normal PSA levels refers to 'nanograms per milliliter' in serum or plasma, with serum being the more commonly used medium. A nanogram is one thousand-millionth of a gram. An increase in PSA levels above the upper limit of the normal range for one's age group does not automatically indicate prostate cancer. Rather, it signals that there may b

PSA stands for prostate-specific antigen, a substance that breaks down the gel-like consistency of semen, allowing sperm to swim towards the egg. PSA, an essential component of semen, is produced by specialized epithelial cells in the prostate gland. Normally, men with a healthy prostate have a small amount of PSA in their blood, and the normal range can vary by age . An increase in PSA levels does not necessarily indicate prostate cancer; it suggests that something is amiss with the prostate gland and requires evaluation. PSA levels can be influenced by various factors, such as prostate inflammation, enlargement, or cancer. However, PSA levels can also remain elevated for up to 48 hours after sexual activity. Moreover, vigorous exercise, particularly cycling, can affect PSA levels. Therefore, it is advised that men avoid ejaculation and vigorous exercise 48 hours before undergoing a PSA test. PSA in the blood exists in two forms: free PSA (the inactive form) and bound PSA (the active

The internet offers numerous tips on how to reduce PSA ( prostate-specific antigen ) levels. However, attempting to reduce PSA based on such information can be more harmful than beneficial. If you have a high PSA level, it is crucial to follow your doctor's advice rather than trying to reduce it independently. Actions like consuming certain foods or drinks before a PSA test can lead to misleading results, either false positives or negatives.  This can impede your doctor's ability to make an accurate clinical judgment. For instance, if you have prostate cancer and attempt to artificially lower your PSA before a test, the cancer might remain undetected. Therefore, always seek guidance from a qualified medical practitioner before trying to reduce your PSA levels on your own.

Various factors can lead to high PSA (prostate-specific antigen) levels. Prostate cancer is one known cause of elevated PSA levels. Additionally, any issue with the prostate gland, such as benign prostatic hyperplasia (an enlarged prostate) or inflammation of the prostate gland (prostatitis), can also result in high PSA levels. Age is another contributing factor to high PSA levels in men. Typically, as men get older, their PSA levels tend to increase. Beyond medical conditions and age, lifestyle factors can also influence PSA levels. Activities such as sexual activity and strenuous exercise, especially cycling, have been known to raise PSA levels. Therefore, it is advisable to refrain from these activities at least 48 hours prior to undergoing a PSA test. It is crucial to understand that a high PSA level does not automatically indicate a medical problem. Elevated PSA levels can be caused by a variety of factors, and further investigations are often needed to identify the specific caus

Avelumab treatment for kidney cancer, particularly for advanced renal cell carcinoma (RCC), marks a significant advancement in cancer therapy. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved avelumab in 2019, particularly for use in combination with axitinib, as a first-line treatment for patients with advanced RCC. Avelumab is an immunotherapy drug that has shown considerable promise in enhancing treatment outcomes, especially when used alongside other treatments. Avelumab functions as an immune checkpoint inhibitor and is a type of monoclonal antibody. It targets the programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1), a mechanism cancer cells often exploit to evade immune system detection. By binding to PD-L1, avelumab enables immune cells, notably T-cells, to more effectively recognize and combat cancer cells. The indication for avelumab, particularly in combination with axitinib, a tyrosine kinase inhibitor, is for the first-line treatment of advanced RCC. This combination is specifically chos

Bevacizumab treatment for kidney cancer, particularly in advanced or metastatic renal cell carcinoma (RCC), has become a significant addition to the treatment options available. Approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 2009, bevacizumab is a monoclonal antibody that targets the vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), a key protein in tumor angiogenesis - the formation of new blood vessels essential for tumor growth and spread. The mechanism of action of bevacizumab involves binding to VEGF and preventing it from interacting with its receptors on endothelial cells, which line the inside of blood vessels. This inhibition effectively starves the tumor of its necessary blood supply, slowing down its growth and spread. As an anti-angiogenic drug, bevacizumab specifically targets the blood vessels supplying the tumor, which is a different approach compared to traditional chemotherapies that target rapidly dividing cells. Bevacizumab is primarily used for treating advance

Tivozanib treatment for kidney cancer represents a notable advancement in the options available for patients, particularly since its approval by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 2021. This development significantly enhances the therapeutic landscape for individuals with renal cell carcinoma (RCC), especially those dealing with advanced or metastatic disease. Tivozanib is a potent, selective, and long-acting oral tyrosine kinase inhibitor (TKI). It primarily targets vascular endothelial growth factor receptors (VEGFRs), crucial in angiogenesis—the formation of new blood vessels vital for tumor growth and survival. Its mechanism of action disrupts the blood supply to the tumor, which can lead to tumor growth reduction and potential shrinkage. The drug is indicated for advanced RCC treatment, especially in patients who have undergone two or more prior systemic therapies. Tivozanib has become a valuable option for patients who have shown limited responses to prior treatments,

Temsirolimus treatment for kidney cancer has been a critical development in oncology, particularly following its approval by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 2007. This approval was a notable advancement in the management of advanced renal cell carcinoma (RCC), especially for patients with a poor prognosis. Temsirolimus, an mTOR (mammalian target of rapamycin) inhibitor, plays a key role in cell growth and proliferation. By targeting and inhibiting mTOR, temsirolimus disrupts essential processes for tumor growth and survival, particularly decreasing tumor growth and angiogenesis. The primary use of temsirolimus is in treating advanced RCC, especially in high-risk patients who have not responded to other therapies. It is often employed as a first-line treatment, especially for those with poor prognostic factors. Administered through intravenous infusion, typically in a clinical setting, temsirolimus requires professional monitoring. The standard dosing regimen includes w

Everolimus treatment for kidney cancer, particularly in advanced stages, has become a crucial aspect of the therapeutic landscape. This targeted therapy drug was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 2009 for treating advanced renal cell carcinoma (RCC). It offers an essential treatment option for patients, especially those who have experienced cancer progression despite initial therapy. Everolimus functions as an mTOR (mammalian target of rapamycin) inhibitor, targeting a pathway that is vital for cell growth and proliferation. By inhibiting this pathway, everolimus slows the growth and spread of cancer cells, making it a targeted therapy that zeroes in on pathways more active in cancer cells, offering a more precise approach compared to conventional chemotherapy. Everolimus is specifically used for patients with advanced RCC who have not responded to previous VEGF-targeted therapies. It is commonly prescribed as a second-line treatment, meaning it is used when in

Sunitinib treatment for kidney cancer emerged as a pivotal advancement when the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved it in 2006. This significant breakthrough in kidney cancer therapy introduced a new and effective option for patients, especially those with advanced or metastatic renal cell carcinoma (RCC). As a multi-targeted tyrosine kinase inhibitor (TKI), sunitinib inhibits various receptors, including vascular endothelial growth factor receptors (VEGFRs) and platelet-derived growth factor receptors (PDGFRs), which are involved in the growth and spread of cancer cells. Its mechanism of action includes blocking these receptors to inhibit angiogenesis—the growth of new blood vessels to tumors—and directly targeting cancer cells, thereby impeding tumor growth and spread. Primarily, sunitinib is indicated for the first-line treatment of advanced RCC. It stands as one of the standard treatments for patients with metastatic RCC, particularly those with clear cell histology,

Sorafenib treatment for kidney cancer marked a pivotal advancement when the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved it in 2005. This approval provided a new line of therapy for patients with advanced renal cell carcinoma (RCC), especially those with limited treatment options. Sorafenib is a tyrosine kinase inhibitor (TKI) that blocks multiple enzymes essential for the growth and spread of cancer cells, including those in the vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) pathways. Its mechanism of action involves inhibiting angiogenesis, the formation of new blood vessels essential for tumor growth and metastasis, and directly targeting tumor cells. Sorafenib is primarily indicated for treating advanced RCC, particularly in patients who have not responded to standard interferon-alpha or interleukin-2 therapy . It is often used as a second-line treatment for patients with metastatic RCC who have progressed after cytokine therapy. Administered orally in tablet form, sorafenib allows

Pembrolizumab treatment for kidney cancer , particularly advanced renal cell carcinoma (RCC), represents a significant advancement in immunotherapy. Approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 2019, it is specifically indicated in combination with axitinib for the first-line treatment of advanced RCC, marking a substantial progress in managing this type of cancer. Pembrolizumab is a monoclonal antibody functioning as an immune checkpoint inhibitor. It targets the programmed death-1 (PD-1) receptor on T cells, a crucial component of the immune response. By inhibiting PD-1, pembrolizumab prevents cancer cells from using PD-1 pathways to escape immune detection, thereby boosting the immune system's ability to combat cancer cells. This drug, in combination with axitinib , a tyrosine kinase inhibitor, is indicated as a first-line treatment for patients with advanced RCC. This combination is particularly effective for patients who have not previously received therapy for